The 6th mass extinction is here. Climate collapse is unstoppable. Civilization can no longer sustain us. Research into resilient crops and natural cultivation methods for food security in temperate climates.*
*This page is a work in progress, information may not be accurate.
Everyday I ask myself, what should I do? As our planet barrels towards an uninhabitable future, our governments become more repressive and everyday life becomes more dystopian, what can I do to stop all this? The most important realization is that none of us are going to change the world. We are not going to save the planet from another extinction (it's already happening). We are not going to save the billions of human and non-human lives that will perish. Already over 80 billion land animals are killed each year for consumption, and that is only the tip of the iceberg. Words cannot do justice to the absolutely immense horrors we are responsible for. Clinging to some vision of a better future is tempting, but the evidence against this couldn't be more obvious. The destructive power of civilization has been growing for thousands of years now. Behind all the lies about progress is the simple truth: our planet is dying and there is nothing we, as individuals, can do about it. And so we are perhaps one of the few generations of humans to live through the momentous shift climate collapse is causing. Nothing like this has ever happened in the entire history of humanity. Mankind is entering a new era.
In the face of all this, how can I be of any meaningful service? Why spend my time researching and growing food? I believe having an interactive relationship with nature is one of the most direct ways to feel satisfied and empowered. And only individuals engaged with nature are capable of forming communities that truly provide for our physical, social and spiritual needs. When our empire inevitably collapses, these communities have the potential to be the building blocks of a new society, to form a federation of self-sufficient tribes. Keeping land at the forefront of both individual and societal success is an effective path forward because it is meaningfunl at every level - whether you just want to not hate the world, or you want to improve the living conditions of your community, or you want to build a new society. Even disregarding the bigger picture, this perspective is nothing but practical. How will you feed your family when industrial agriculture fails or groceries become too expensive to afford? Growing food is a concrete way of solving a very real and imminent problem without depending on people who don't care about us or our planet. There's nothing glamorous about this, it's hands in the dirt kind of change, but it's real and it happens right before your eyes.
Growing food doesn't have to be hard, lots of vegetables even grow like weeds! Grass lawns were once a symbol of wealth, yet now they sit in front of even the most impoverished homes. This paradox was intentionally designed through generations of propaganda. For years I was utterly confused, why are some vegetables considered to grow too well and eradicated while right next door people go hungry? Is there an abundance of food or isn't there!? I will leave you to answer this yourself, but it certainly doesn't have to be this way. Only within the last few decades did we gain access to thousands of seeds from every corner of the earth. Consider how many generations of work went into finding, domesticating and improving these crops throughout human history! This is a privilege few could even dream of until now. As the world transforms into something entirely new, it has in the very same moment bestowed upon us the plants of salvation. And with them comes the power to create a landscape unlike any before in history. I have a vision for a garden that is a meadow, orchard, and forest all in one. Food is everywhere, underneath your feet, brushing past your knees, blossoming towards the sky and hanging from the trees. A garden that draws all creatures towards it, a garden that fills them up and envelopes them. A garden that provides for everyone within it while magically regenerating, becoming stronger and more complex every year.
On a more practical note, this research is an attempt to prepare for the extinction and help communities build resilient food systems. Most people have land with poor soil and very little knowledge about growing food. Finding crops that can grow in this environment and provide real sustenance is therefore of the utmost importance. All of my of research is published and updated regularly right here on this page. It will always be available for free. My only hope is that I can help humanity adapt to the terrifying future that awaits us. Ultimately all this may accomplish very little, but every day that a garden lives it serves the creatures within.
Nevertheless, a new breed of explorers has arisen, those who are disenchanted with the bland products of the supermarkets, those who still feel the primordial urge to plant, those whose tastes are adventurous. There are those whose pocketbooks are thin who can benefit from green leaves easily grown at home. Finally, there are the few who recognize that the vegetables we emphasize now are but a part of a larger, and mostly still available heritage, a heritage whose potentials have still not been fully realized.
- Edible Leaves Of The Tropics
How do we even begin to feed ourselves? What are we growing and eating? I personally do not grow nearly enough food to feed myself. It is a difficult task that most people throughout most of history have not attempted. Even after the advent of agriculture, a significant portion of food was often foraged from the local environment. But the natural abundance that once covered the earth has been almost completely destroyed. As agriculture evolved to power an ever-expanding civilization, forests were felled and landscapes were permanently disfigured. We burned down ecosystems masterfully designed over millennia, teeming with life and full of nutritious food, in an attempt to grow something a fraction as productive in their place, all with big clumsy hands and little human brains. The plants that sprouted in these graveyards were not grown for people, but markets and masters; they could not nourish us in the same way. All this is only to say that growing all of our own food in a truly compassionate and sustainable way requires a monumental, persistent effort and has not been the norm for any period of human history. But the old world is gone and it is never coming back, so we must do what we can given our circumstances. Growing only a portion of our food still has enormous benefits and can certainly create some sense of food security, even if it is not complete. So returning to our original question, what should we grow? What plants do people eat to survive?
The broadest pattern that emerges for practically any species on earth is the foods that provide the highest net energy and nutrition (and are digestible by the specific anatomy of the creature) in any given landscape become primary sources of sustenance. That means a guerilla that has access to fruits will generally prioritize those over leaves. Eating 20 pounds of fruit is much easier than eating 20 pounds of leaves. And like many other mammals, humans gravitate towards high-density sources of energy like nuts, fruits, roots and seeds to sustain themselves. Leafy vegetables, while an essential addition to our diet, require a much larger quantity to provide the same amount of energy.
This happens to work out quite well for us because nuts and fruits are some of the easiest, most productive perennial crops. Even with a limited amount of space we have many options, including oak, hazelnut, plum and mulberry. Once planted, they can often continue producing for decades - talk about a return on investment! Tree crops also require significantly less resources to produce, meaning they will often tolerate poorer soil and less frequent watering than many herbaceous crops. In this way they are extremely efficient at producing food. Nuts and other chewy foods are also an essential edition to human diets for proper jaw and skull development. The benefits of trees are truly endless and there is no easier way to improve the health of a landscape. Fruit and nut trees are the foundation of sustainable agriculture and can make up a significant portion of our diet.
Root crops are also a very dense source of energy, often more so than fruit. Cold-hardy, perennial root crops are another staple of sustainable agriculture and include natives like sunchoke, groundnut and lotus. While perennial roots are more work than simply picking fruit off a tree, they usually require little maintenance once planted and can often be harvested every year. Annual roots may require more work to grow, but can significantly expand our options with some heavy hitters like achira, taro or potato. Alongside nuts and fruits, roots are another significant addition to our diet.
Our next consideration is the smallest of the bunch: seeds. When people grow all their own food, seeds are usually how they do it. Seeds, including grains and pulses, are very calorically dense, can be eaten in quantity, and are easily stored or transported. This is why almost every civilization on earth has been built on them. But growing grains sustainably can be difficult - most often it results in a monoculture that degrades the soil while providing very little ecological value. And to top it all off, grains require the most labor of any food mentioned here to grow, harvest and process. This is not to say they should be avoided, only that how they are grown and incorporated into our diet needs to be reconsidered. Natives like the sunflower are a staple for pollinators and pulses are a valuable addition for their ability to fix nitrogen in the soil. But even so, this category of foods is generally comprised of labor-intensive annuals that are difficult to incorporate into more permanent food systems. Ultimately it may be useful to think of seeds, grains, and pulses as another addition to a varied diet, and not necessarily the staple of every meal.
Finally, we arrive at leafy vegetables and the like. While they don't provide the bulk of our sustenance, they are necessary for vitamins and minerals (and flavor!). They also bring diversity and excitement to the garden. Here too we can focus on perennials that provide a crop every year with little effort after the initial planting. Plants like turkish rocket and seombadi provide excellent perennial alternatives to some of the more common vegetables you may be used to eating. Succulents like prickly pear or dolnamul can turn barren land with very little fertility into an oasis of fresh food. Plants that generate a lot of biomass like udo can offer us regular harvests while producing organic matter for mulching. Weedy annuals like perilla can compete with other vegetation and turn unproductive land into a thicket of food in a single season. The options are truly limitless, and every plant has its own unique traits that can be utilized to our advantage.
The food we choose to grow is also fundamentally related to how we eat. If we only eat a few times per day, each meal needs to be extremely calorically dense, further deepening our reliance on grains. But what if we ate more like the guerilla? It's a lot easier to eat five pounds of fruits and nuts over the course of an entire day than it is to eat it at only three meals. Maybe changing what we eat also means changing how we eat.
The methods I use all fit into a singular holistic approach - working with natural systems to incorporate food crops into the landscape. The plants are our teachers. This mean learning from them without any preconceived notions about how they should grow or what they should be doing. We are watching and listening, not expecting. It is absolutely essential that we approach this with a sense of humility, respect, and the recognition that plants are complex and intelligent living beings. We will never understand the endless layers of nuance that guide their growth, but lucky for us we don't need to. All we need to do is listen closely and offer our service.
Healthy soil is the backbone of temperate food forests, and plants are natural soil builders. Plants build soil using a few primary methods. Sending roots into the soil adds organic matter, cycles nutrients, aerates the soil and gives it structure. This builds soil from within. After the plants die, their stems and leaves fall over and act as mulch until they fully decompose. Dead plants keep the soil from drying out, return nutrients to the topsoil and offer a sheltered microclimate for everything happening at ground level. It is often the case that soil already has enough of everything it needs, we just need to help make it bioavailable by cycling it through plants and turning it into into mulch. This builds soil from above. And the way plants naturally die and return to the ground creates a thick but not overly dense layer of mulch. Most importantly, it has structure. It allows space for other seeds to germinate and grow while still offering shelter from the elements. When one plant dies it creates the right environment for the next plant to take its spot, to work the soil with its roots, and then to become mulch for the next plant. This is the genius of nature.
So our two most important methods of building soil are using the power of roots to work the soil, and returning organic matter back to the topsoil as mulch. In the garden we can imitate these patterns by letting plants cover as much ground as possible. The more roots we have working the soil for us, the better. Of course, we can't let every single plant grow to maturity or else there would be no room for our food crops. This is where we come in. We can curate which plants to let grow and which to cut down. Instead of ripping everything up and dumping an even mat of mulch on our beds, we can build the soil more naturally. By cutting down plants in the garden and using them as mulch, we are imitating a natural soil-building pattern.
Encouraging plants to cover the soil and continuously decompose has added benefits as well. First, it creates the right environment for insects. Bugs need a diverse landscape with a variety of physical niches to take advantage of. They don't like flat sheets of mulch. If we didn't have the right balance of insects, we would constantly be fighting against them. This method of management invites them all in to sort it out amongst themselves. The insects can then become our partners as primary decomposers of dead plants, continuously adding fertility to the soil. Second, it creates the right environment for beneficial fungal networks. Plants depend on fungi to survive and thrive. The more roots they can partner with and the more organic matter we can feed them, the better.
Practically, implementing this system is fairly straightforward because we are letting nature do most of the work for us. There will be a host of plants growing in our garden beds whether we like it or not. If any plants are competing too much with our food crops, we just cut them down and let them fall where they are. The more aggressive the species is the more often those plants will need to be removed. If we let them grow they may create too much shade or spread too aggressively. But the species that present little competition to our food crops need less management. Some of them may be edible themselves, some may attract beneficial insects, some may fix nitrogen, some may protect the soil. We are looking at the ground and seeing which plants are working for us and which ones aren't. Those that aren't get ripped up and now they are working for us as mulch!
As an example, in my garden beds I allow many plants to grow, some of which are: Duchesnea indica [mock strawberry] acts as a non-invasive groundcover; Trifolium repens [white clover] and any other leguminous plants fix nitrogen; Lobelia inflata [Indian tobacco] is a native medicinal; Stellaria media [chickweed] is a delicous edible; Zinnia peruviana [Peruvian zinnia] is a beautiful flower appreciated by local pollinators. There are also many that I rip up and mulch in place with regularly: Muhlenbergia schreberi [nimblewill] or any other weedy grasses spread quickly by rhizome and discourage vegetable seed germination; Erechtites hieraciifolius [American burnweed], Acalypha rhomboidea [copperleaf], and Persicaria maculosa [lady's thumb] all multiply rapidly by seed and can easily take over garden beds. It is always helpful to watch how a plant interacts with the its environment before running to rip it up. There are times where it may be beneficial to let a weed grow to maturity, allowing its roots to improve the soil, before cutting it down and using all the biomass it created as mulch. Even a plant like lady's thumb may be useful in the right circumstance; when regenerating a patch of eroded soil, this was one of of the main plants to start growing once the ground had been stabilized. It's ability to grow quickly practically anywhere is now helping stabilize the ground with its roots, add organic matter, create shade for the topsoil and shelter for insects. It will eventually be replaced by other plants with my assistance (like the profilic feverfew), but for now it is doing me a lot of good. In this case, it is working for me and not against me. There is no right or wrong here, just fluid and spontaneous responses to what's in front of us. Natural processes are constantly working towards a healthier ecosystem and are ultimately doing the vast majority of work for us. Our role is not to redefine these processes, but use them to guide the environment towards productivity and diversity.
Planting short lived crops into a system like this is easy, just clear a small circle around the area and direct seed or transplant as you would normally. Even with all the help we provide, some plants will simply not be suited for our soil or climate without a lot of work. So it's just as important to find the right species or varieties for our specific conditions. We can't expect to drop any old plant in and have it grow! This is why our plant selection prioritizes resiliency, and those that do survive become become stronger with every generation. Before long the food will be growing itself. Of course, regular maintenance is unavoidable. In order to grow certain plants we must halt the process of succession - otherwise our garden would quickly become a deciduous forest (at least where I live). Incorporating tree crops helps us work with succession to a certain degree, but ultimately there is no way to avoid the basic work of weeding, transplanting and dispersing seeds. Despite what many claim, a garden that does not require any work won't last long. Every garden requires maintenance, but this method aligns our efforts with natural processes and allows us to intervene intelligently, only when it is truly meaningful. This is not a step by step plan with a full proof outcome. This is a dance
Invasive plants are not well defined. Generally they are considered plants which are non-native and cause some form of disruption to the local environment. They will often displace natives or prevent natives from growing and propagating in their normal manner. This is seen as a bad thing because non-native plants do not have the same diverse set of ecological functions that many natives do. Invasives usually cannot support the rich web of life that has spent thousands of years evolving alongside native plants. This is one of the reasons so much time and energy is spent trying to get rid of them (along with a healthy amount of corporate propaganda, of course).
But realistically, we are incapable of eradicating invasives and restoring native ecosystems to their former glory on any meaningful scale. Our society is simply not prepared to accomplish such a monumental feat. What is happening right now, the widespread exchange of plants across the world, must be seen in the context of a) a global civilization in the process of collapsing and b) an ongoing mass extinction due to climate change. Our world is changing, and so is our flora. The 'invasives' are here to stay, and it's about time we get our heads out of the sand. In hundreds of thousands of years, what we consider invasive plants will become native plants to an entirely different ecology. These changes are already in motion, and no amount of human effort will stop them. This is the start of a vastly different evolutionary timeline, as has been the case after every great extinction to happen on earth. So don't worry about 'restoring' habitats. The impending disaster is going to make all of that absolutely meaningless, and your time is better spent working towards zero-input agricultural innovation.
Once we accept that invasives are not going anywhere, the question then becomes: how can we work with them and use them to our advantage? Clearly eradicating them is not possible. And letting them run wild will just result in a big tangled mess with very little biodiversity. But we can treat them just like any other plant in our garden and learn how to manage them thoughtfully, taking advantage of their unique traits to help enrich the landscape whenever possible. Some, like Ampelopsis brevipedunculata [porcelain vine], are almost always detrimental to productive and diverse ecosystems. But others, like Paulownia tomentosa [empress tree], are an incredible addition to the regenerative garden and can take a prominent role in landscape restoration. Or consider Dioscorea polystachya [Chinese yam] which propagates aggressively but is a staple food crop and provides a high quality, perennial source of starch.
Invasives are some of the toughest, most efficient plants out there. They can grow on degraded land, generate tons of carbon and put roots in soil faster than many other plants. Not to mention how smart they are at rapidly propagating themselves. These are amazing and useful qualities, and some of them even produce food! This is why I include many of them in my garden and encourage others to do so as well. In the face of climate collapse, mass ecological destruction, and worsening food scarcity, invasives are a unique set of plants we can't afford to ignore. As sad as the current situation is, our only option moving forward is to let go of the past and see these plants with eyes unclouded.
Life feeds on non-life. Plants feed on sunlight and carbon in the air. They drink water and eat stone in the ground. What's happening in your garden now is the same fundamental process that has turned earth from an uninhabitable rock into a fertile, soft cushion that supports life. Rock into plant into soil, on and on, multiplying, dividing, fertilizing. Nature is a force like gravity, blanketing all existing matter and slowly transforming it into more and more complex forms of life. And nature is what turned a rock and some water into a constellation of sensing, feeling, compassionate, intelligent beings. This power created you as well. So when you walk out into the garden you are among your own likeness. Hard turned into soft, of one elemental passion - to feel.
Now let us introduce a term used by Will Bonsal: eco-efficiency. This is essentially how efficiently a plant can make use of local resources to turn non living things into living things (organic matter). It is not just the nutrient requirements, but how adept the plant is at gathering resources from the soil, the air, and the sun. The ideal eco-efficient plant would be one that tolerates deep shade, can be planted into the most difficult soil, requires only a minimal amount of water, fixes nitrogen, and grows very quickly to generate a lot of biomass. This plant doesn't quite exist, but you can see how it would be extremely useful in the garden. It would be very good at turning the environment into a paradise of organic matter. And a garden runs on organic matter, the more you have the more fertility there will be, the more life will spawn, and ultimately the more productive it will become.
The plants that are the most eco-efficient are therefore the ones best at turning this hard and harsh rock of a planet into a soft and gentle habitat to support life through the creation of organic matter. And our number one star of eco efficiency will always be trees, nothing else even comes close. Trees are the foundation of fertility. Enough food-producing trees will not just replace any nutrients lost from regular harvests, but multiply them many times over. Trees heal the soil, they use their roots to massage rocks and their branches to dispense medicine in the form of fallen leaves. They regulate the temperature, purify the air, pull water out of the sky and produce sweet orbs of energy that sustain life. To what better deity could one offer their service? What power is more reliable, more effective, more useful, than that of a tree?
All of the vegetables we grow in the garden were once plants growing the wild, surviving on their own without any help from humans. They drank only rain water and took what nutrients they needed from the soil. They produced seed which then went on to germinate and grow of its own accord, again without any help from humans. So why must gardening be so complicated? Why do we struggle to grow plants that often grow prolifically when left alone in their natural habitat? Here are three perspectives to approach this from:
Breeding: Many annuals and biennials have been bred for hundreds or thousands of years, and they are no longer adapted to thrive in the face of competition and scarce natural resources. Generations of selection have weakened many of their natural responses to disease and browsing.
Approach: Select for specimens that can thrive with little care and let go of those that cannot. This will lead to a resilient population capable of propagating itself.
Environment: Plants evolve alongside their environment, carving out unique niches in which they can successfully grow and propagate themselves. We can move a plant from the wilderness to our gardens, but we cannot move the landscape, climate, wildlife and the endless number of other, unknown variables.
Approach: Acclimate crops to a new environment by creating favorable growing conditions and weeding selectively. As the plants evolve, so should your management practices.
Density: Even when a crop has been bred for resiliency and is well-adapted to our local environment, we are usually still attempting to grow it at a much higher density than would naturally be the case. Healthy soil that can support our crops depends on a diversity of plants in constant evolution with one another.
Approach: Grow a diverse variety of crops alongside each other to lower the density of any given species, keep soil healthy, and encourage a balanced insect population.
This three-pronged approach helps me understand the vegetables I grow in a broader context and offers a simple framework for growing crops in a way that becomes both easier and more sustainable over time. Keep in mind that naturalizing vegetables in the garden can be a long process and may take many years. Many vegetables will simply not be suited to grow naturally in your specific climate and soil. The weeds that grow naturally in your area can provide some insight as to what families of plants will grow easily, but if often comes down to lots of trial and error. As an example, I personally find many plants in the carrot family to be suited for my methods, while those in the mustard family rarely are. Your specific climate, soil and circumstances will lead to unique results.
Many online references about certain vegetables self-sowing are completely inaccurate in my garden. I think they are often referring to beds that are kept clean, regularly cleared back to bare soil and irrigated. In these conditions pretty much anything will self-sow if you let it go to seed. Living ground covers, mulching in place, weed competition and reliance on rainwater leads to different results. Plants that I have had success naturalizing in the these conditions are marked as self-sowing in the individual listings. Wild vegetables or those that have had minimal breeding work will often do better in these conditions. But whether the plants we grow are wild or domesticated, they need to move in the direction of self-growing, self-propagating genetics that are adapted to intense competition, eratic weather and unpredictable rainfall. I am convinced this is the only meaningful direction for the future that lies ahead of us.
I am always trying to get as close to natural patterns as I can - the less I have to intervene, the better. Of course, the ideal form of natural farming may not always be the most practical. Below I have laid out some of the defining characteristics of two different management patterns. Both would be considered natural farming but they differ in many important ways.
| Fluid | Rigid |
| Human management integrating with natural patterns. | Human management interfering with natural patterns. |
| Crop growth and soil regeneration occur simultaneously. | Crop growth and soil regeneration occur separately. |
| Crops selected based on local conditions. | Crops selected based on human preference. |
| Weeds grow alongside vegetables. | Weeds mainly grow during fallow periods. |
| Competitive weeds are mulched in place. | All weeds are mulched in place or composted. |
| Beds are never cleared or reset. | Beds are cleared and reset before every planting. |
| Fluid and natural crop rotation. | Rigid and scheduled crop rotation. |
| Seeds are stored alongside each other in the soil. | Seeds are collected and stored separately. |
| Seeds are dispersed naturally as they appear. | Seeds are sown before expected germination. |
| No control over when crops germinate and grow. | Control over when crops germinate and grow. |
| Polycultures are formed spontaneously. | Polycultures are intentionally organized. |
| Vegetables are harvested as needed. | Vegetables are harvested all at once. |
| Perennials grow alongside annuals. | Perennials mainly grow separate from annuals. |
Water is the foundation of life and there are a variety of simple modifications we can make to our land in order to help slow rainwater down and sink it into the soil. This is usually accomplished by either removing soil to create a depression, adding soil to create a mound, or most often a combination of the two. In some cases this may remove or drastically reduce the need for irrigation.
These methods revolve around a few simple and fundamental functions: a) slowing or concentrating water to infiltrate into the soil and raise the surrounding water table while b) simultaneously catching sediment or debris and revegetating so that c) the landscape can hold has much water as possible underground, in the soil, above ground and in a dense canopy of vegetation.
Many methods can be found at Greener Land and most can be done on a small scale with nothing but a shovel, so don't be intimidated! This page also has some nice illustrations. For an in-depth and technical discussion of many of these methods, see the standard reference Rainwater Harvesting for Drylands and Beyond. His blog also has excellent case studies. Below I have summarized some of the most relevant methods.
Terrace | Steep Slope
One of the most labor intensive methods but effective for leveling land with steep slopes. I think it usually makes more sense to adjust your plant selection so they can be planted on contour right into the slope and then use other landscaping methods or plants where the land levels out. There are very casual ways of making small terraces (as seen in the first link) and more effective, long term solutions involving laying down stone in particular patterns. The Incas are believed to have tailored their tuber cultivation to different microclimates within sunken, circular terraces. Talk about advanced agriculture! [Link]
Net & Pan | Steep to Low Slope
This system consists of creating shallow trenches or berms around trees and connecting them with narrow pathways to guide water. This solution is helpful in two scenarios. The first being when trees are already established and any significant digging or soil movement has the potential to damage tree roots close to the surface. The second being when the slope of the land is too steep for swales or other interventions. The term 'net and pan' has also been used to describe negarim and boomerang basins. The key concept shared by these patterns is that water is collected within a single module and any overflow is passed along to another module within the network. However I have described those two methods separately below. [Link]
Bamboo Fence | Steep to Low Slope
Arranged on contour, a primitive bamboo fence will help slow water down and can be applied to steep or gently sloped terrain. The bamboo also acts as a channel allowing rainwater to penetrate deeper into the soil. The bamboo should be treated by fire beforehand to prevent rot and then hammered into the ground until it is secure. The smaller the gap between individual stakes the better. Since bamboo can grow quickly and there are suitable species for most environments, it seems smart to develop more water-harvesting methods that utilize it. Stones and logs are not always available but bamboo is strong, lightweight and can be grown on the spot.
Contour Swale | Moderate to Low Slope
A popular water management solution and effective on both very large and very small scales. It consists of digging trenches along the contour of a slope (so that the trench is level as it curves around the landscape) and piling the dug up soil into a mound behind the trench. This helps catch, sink and redirect rainwater along with any sediment or soil it is carrying. Logs (or even stones) can be buried within the mounds Hügelkultur style to lift them higher and improve the soil. Swales can also be dug off countour to direct water in a specific direction if needed. Off-contour swales are also better for steeper slopes where slowing and directing rainwater is more practical than trying to completely stop its momentum. Even if the slope is too steep for a swale, perennials can still be planted on contour to help slow down water and reduce erosion. [Link]
Pond | Moderate to Low Slope
Water attracts life, and ponds collect a huge excess of fertility that can be used to feed the rest of the garden. Not only that, but plant some staple perennial root crops like lotus, wapato and cattail for massive harvests. Ponds are often the foundation of water management systems, allowing long-term water storage and distribution. Higher elevation siting is typically preferred to make use of gravity for irrigation further downslope. Ponds are often used in conjunction with other methods like contour swales and terraces. And as with contour swales or any other interventions that concentrate large amounts of water, thoughtfully designed spillways are essential for long term sustainability and safety. Ponds can be very similar to infiltration or percolation basins. Whereas ponds attempt to hold water in place, percolation basins attempt to sink it into the ground. The soil underneath the water plays a key role in this - heavy rock or clay will often prevent infiltration, whereas looser or sandier soil will aid infiltration and raise the surrounding water table.
Basin | Moderate to Low Slope
Basins are simply large depressions dug out of the soil to capture and infiltrate water into the soil. They are often relatively shallow, especially compared to ponds, and this makes the sloped edges easier to stabilize with stones and/or vegetation. Plants not tolerant of wet feet may be mounded within the basin. Spillways are often connected to other basins. One of the most fundamental and effective patterns of water harvesting.
Boomerang Berm | Moderate to Low Slope
This method consists of creating a semi-circular depression surrounded by a mound. The opening faces uphill, the direction water will enter from, and the berm catches and concentrates water for the plants within. This method is a bit more modular and can be done one at a time, making it both versatile and approachable. The opening of the semi-circle should be roughly on contour. There is considerable variability regarding the size of this pattern based on what is being planted but it can be done even on a very small scale.
One Rock Dam | Moderate to Low Slope
Heavy stones are placed in lines on contour or in the path of flowing water, usually with 'anchor' stones buried partially in the ground behind the others.. A simple and effective way of slowing down water and catching sediment or debris. The name of this method indicates that the 'dam' is only one rock high, however if enough sediment builds up another layer of stones can be placed on top. A fundamental and effective water management strategy. Logs can be used in a similar fashion. This method can also be used to create a baffle, which is essentially just a structure that slows and directs the movement of water. Instead of placing material evenly across the bed of a water channel, it can be placed off to one side. This will encourage the water to move towards the opposite side, creating a meandering effect that will help slow and sink water. [Link]
Sheet Flow Spreader/Collecter | Moderate to Low Slope
Stones are shaped into a boomerang to either collect the flow of water or spread it out. If water enters from 'inside' the boomerang, it will be spread out over a greater surface area and be pushed outwards, following the direction of the rock. If water enters from 'outside' the boomerang, it will be collected and concentrated towards the center, again following the direction of the stones. Another simple and effective strategy that is easy to experiment with.
.
Negarim | Low Slope
Berms shaped into adjacent diamonds, more appropriate for flatter land. The goal here is to catch all the rain that falls within each rectangle and contain it within the mounds along the perimeter. It is then further concentrated towards a particular corner using one of two methods. The land may be sloped towards this corner directly where perennials are planted, or the land may be flat and a deep hole is dug in the corner (to infiltrate water), next to which perennials are planted. [Link]
Zai Pit | Low Slope
It doesn't get much simpler than digging a small hole and sticking a plant in it! But don't be fooled by the simplicity as this method can be extremely effective at concentrating rainwater. The holes can also be mulched with compost or organic matter to further aid growth. Typically organized into grids but a biointensive planting pattern may be more effective. Waffle gardens with square depressions are applications of the same concept. [Link] [Link]
Buried Ceramic | Low Slope
This method involves burying porous, ceramic containers or pipes in the ground and filling them with water that will slowly be released into the surrounding soil. Plants should be concentrated in the area surrounding the ceramic. The ceramic must be unglazed and porous so water can seep out. It is easiest to use deep ceramic planters, buried just until their tops are level with the soil. The dishes normally placed underneath the pot can instead be placed on top to prevent evaporation. This is an excellent way to stretch water collected from ponds or rain barrels.
As you can see many of these methods are very similar - what's important is to understand the basic principles of slowing down or concentrating water so that it can better penetrate the soil. Even something as simple as organizing stones into a line can be an effective water management method! The simplicity and elegance of primitive methods like this really display how brilliant our species can be at enriching landscapes. And of course these methods should be used in conjunction with dense planting, mulching and other patterns from our toolkit.
These landscaping methods are usually followed by planting trees, bushes or other perennials in the depressions, mounds or surrounding area depending on the context. Vegetation can amplify the water-harvesting potential of earthworks when the two are designed in tandem. Shaping land this way creates a higher density of biological niches that allow greater plant diversity and more creative polycultures, all while capturing water, improving soil and integrating our crops into the landscape.
This is a rough and generalized process for converting areas overtaken by grasses and other vegetation into usable garden beds. This is not meant to be used for larger areas or fields - these usually need to be cleared and reseeded with the right equipment, or slowly transformed over a much longer period of time.
Even if working in larger areas, this method can be used to create small 'islands' within the existing vegetation that are regularly maintained and expanded. But if grasses or other native plants are not removed in any way, different methods are needed. Slowly transforming the space by transplanting larger perennials, especially trees and shrubs, is your best bet. I am also experimenting with crops like perilla and barley that can be direct seeded into compacted soil and succeed even with competition from grasses.
Minimizing land used for lawn is best, but we all need a place to play. Here are some methods I've used to help improve the ecological functions of my lawn.
Mow infrequently. In spring I like to wait as long as I can before the first mow. Once I start mowing, I try to let the grass grow as much as possible in between mows. And in the fall I try to leave the grass tall before it dies and overwinters. This will provide better habitat for insects.
Mow on high. Set the mower to the highest setting that is convenient. This will keep the grass healthy and allow it to develop a better root system.
Encourage weeds. I disperse clover seed in my lawn as it collects nitrogen and provides flowers for the pollinators. Dandelions and voilets are my favorite plants to find in the lawn. Any other "weeds" that can tolerate foot traffic and stay short should be encouraged as a way of increasing diversity.
Pitchfork. I spent a few hours sinking a pitchfork all over my lawn and slightly lifting up (the same method I recommend for preparing new beds). This reduces compaction and help sink rainwater into the soil. It will also result in your lawn being more bumpy - this is good as it will help slow the rainwater down. I cannot overstate how significantly this improved the water retention abilities of my lawn.
The methods we use to grow, maintain, harvest and propagate crops can make all the difference in both the health of the ecosystem and how much work it requires to maintain. These are the basic principles I use in my garden.
Feed the soil. Focus on crops that feed the soil. Plants like Aralia cordata [udo] and Canna edulis [achira] generate large amounts of top growth for mulching. Plants like Raphanus sativus [radish] and Brassica rapa [turnip] have fat roots that aerate the soil and feed beneficial bacteria when they decompose. Plants like Elaeagnus multiflora [goumi] and Phaseolus coccineus [runner bean] fix nitrogen in the soil and keep it productive.
Build structure. Loose soil gets compacted and washed away with heavy rains. Healthy soil has structure that improves drainage, aeration and water retention, all while holding it together and preventing erosion. Roots build structure within the soil, while mulching in place builds structure above the soil. Tilling is avoided because it destroys soil structure and the fungal networks that depend on it.
Weed selectively. Plants growing naturally in our beds can serve important functions. Many are edible themselves, help protect the soil, fix nitrogen or attract beneficial insects. Any plants that offer little function or excessively compete with our food crops are pulled and mulched in place.
Disperse seeds naturally. Naturally dispersed seeds land in slightly different niches and germinate intermittently. This improves the resiliency of the population in the face of unpredictable weather patterns and pressure from disease or insects. This also allows the soil to function as our seed bank, holding large quantities of seed until they are ready to grow.
Annuals alongside perennials. Perennials offer stability and reliable production. These can be transplanted, a small amount of work for many years of food. Annuals have a different niche altogether and should be treated as such. They love taking advantage of disturbed soil and quickly filling in empty spaces between our perennials. Their seeds should be dispersed across the garden beds so they can spring into action when an opportunity presents itself.
Roots alongside roots. Roots are an important source of energy, but many require deep soil disturbance to harvest. These should be primarily grown alongside other complementary root crops. This makes harvesting easier, ensures we don't damage nearby perennials, and limits the impact on soil structure.
Harvesting is selecting. Harvesting the weakest plants allows the population to become stronger and better adapted to local conditions with every generation. Our first priority is not a big harvest, but plants with resilient and productive genetics.
Use local materials. Most gardeners have access to natural materials like branches, leaves or grass clippings from adjacent land or the local community. Big logs store water and create habitat for insects and fungi, making them more valuable than wood chips. A thick layer of leaves can be great for beds with primarily root crops or perennials. In beds where seed germination is a priority, I prefer grass clippings and small branches.
Harvest rain water. Water is a magnet that draws life towards it. Harvest as much rainwater as possible to reduce reliance on unsustainable sources of water. If plants can't be grown with locally available water, you might want to think twice about growing them at all.
Plant in islands. Instead of clearing large areas all at once, create small 'islands' that can be planted densely and managed thoughtfully. Let native plants and weeds regenerate soil everywhere else until you are ready to expand. Work on a practical, human scale.
The methods I use won't give you beds full of vegetables right away, and at first it may feel like nothing is working. This is totally normal! No amount of upfront work will change the fact that it takes time and persistence to learn how to care for plants. The first few years are always the hardest, but as time goes on it will get so much easier and so much more productive. If you trust the soil-building techniques and continue offering your service to the multitude of creatures that reside in your garden, then it is inevitable you will see improvements. I spend a lot of time on this stuff and still kill so many plants. Things are going wrong more often than not! Haha. Be patient.
When organizing my garden I often like to arrange plants and polycultures based on the level of disturbance they receive. This is not a rule I normally follow strictly but it can help simplify planning and management.
If mulching with multiple materials they should always be layered with the wettest materials on the bottom and the driest materials on top. This helps lock on moisture and encourages more microbial/fungal action. As an example, when I harvest my bed with achira and taro, I lay down the fresh stems and leaves first before covering with fallen tree leaves collected from elsewhere.
The right plant design will serve not only us humans but all of the creatures that live with us. Animals have different dietary requirements than we do and the way they interact with many plants also poses unique challenges. Taking these considerations into account is essential for creating a space we can comfortably share with our non-human brothers and sisters. In the plant list further down I do my best to indicate crops commonly fed to animals, although the information available for many plants is very limited.
Half the battle of growing and designing for animals is that they will often eat anything you plant before it's had time to reach maturity! Protecting our plants from grazing or uprooting is the first priority, and there are a few different ways to approach this. Knowing what animals you are protecting against will make life much easier, but in reality it often takes many failed attempts to figure this out.
Fencing: The easiest way to prevent sensitive plants from being eaten, dug up or damaged is to enclose them behind a fence. If the enclosed area is large enough for a deer to jump into, the fence should be roughly 6-7 feet high. If the enclosed area is narrow enough that deer can't or won't jump inside, the fence only need to be high enough to prevent any animals from reaching their head over the fence and eating the plants within. Exactly how high this is depends on how tall the the plants within the fence are. If animals or rodents digging underneath the fence is a concern, use a fence with a finer mesh and bury the bottom of it a few inches in the soil. See the equipment section at the bottom of the page for a simple tree fencing setup.
Height: Plants that are high in the air can't get eaten! This mainly applies to trees and vines, both of which can also provide shelter or shade for animals underneath. Both still need to be protected when young, but once tall enough they will be safe from browsing. Keep in mind that even if a tree is tall enough to avoid or tolerate most browsing, it may still benefit from a fence to deter buck rubbing. This is when male deer rub their bucks against young trees to help speed up the velvet shedding process. Some form of protection may also still be required around the lower trunk of the tree to prevent rodents from chewing off the bark. This can be accomplished by loosely wrapping plastic or metal fencing around the trunk. Ideally the fencing will extend a few inches into the soil and still allow the bark to to receive both sunlight and airflow.
Cover: Covering the soil with logs or stones can help prevent pigs, chickens or rodents from digging up plant roots. This is especially useful for tubers or root crops, but may also be useful for any trees, shrubs or plants with shallow root systems. It's as easy as covering the soil surrounding the plants with natural, heavy materials that won't get moved around easily. If you'd like to give the animals access to the plants once they've started producing, just remove some of the cover and let the animals find their way over.
Diversity: A clean layer of mulch and easy-to-spot vegetables are practically an invitation for deer, rabbits or any other animals. Common wisdom dictates that planting herbs with pungent odors alongside your vegetables will help deter browsing. From personal experience I can tell you this doesn't really work in a microcosm. But having a densely planted bed with a variety of herbs, vegetables and weeds all growing on top of one another may help deter browsing to a certain degree.
Plants that are appetizing to wildlife can be protected using the methods above, but what about all the plants they aren't interested in eating? I can say with certainty it is possible to grow a garden filled with a diverse array of wildlife-resistant food plants, we just have to think outside the box. Having deer in the neighborhood is no longer an excuse!
Timing. Some plants may only be eaten by wildlife during specific phases of growth or specific times of the year. Hosta spp. [hosta] plants are generally only eaten once they begin to leaf out. Because of this the shoots can still be harvested without any problems. Hemerocallis spp. [daylily] plants produce new flowers every day during certain portions of the year. With some prudence I can often harvest the flowers before the deer get them. Some other plants are not preferred browse during the growing season but will often get eaten in times of scarcity (typically during the winter). In my garden this includes some varieties of Brassica oleracea [kale] and Allium cepa [onion]. In these cases I often don't mind sharing as I can still harvest the plants for most of the year.
Taste. Plants with pungent aromas or flavors are often left alone by wildlife. This includes some of my favorite herbs like Agastache rugosa [Korean mint], Pycnanthemum incanum [mountain mint] and many others. It also includes many beloved vegetables! Brassica rapa [turnip] and other mustards are often resistant to browsing due to their off-putting flavor. Perilla frutescens [perilla] is also left alone by deer for this reason (but grow it with care as the plant is toxic to cows, goats and some other animals). Deer often eat potato leaves but Tropaeolum tuberosum [mashua] is avoided due to the hotness of the leaves.
Danger. Many plants contain natural defenses to being eaten. The most obvious examples include those with spines or glochids, like Opuntia humifusa [prickly pear], or those with stinging hairs, like Urtica dioica [stinging nettle]. It also includes plants which contain high levels of irritating calcium oxalate like Colocasia esculenta [taro]. We can prepare these plants to make them safe to eat but animals typically avoid them. And don't forget the many woody, thorny plants like Aralia elata [angelica tree] and Rubus idaeus [raspberry].
These considerations may help prevent some animals or wildlife from eating your crops, but at the end of the day we can only do so much. Deer will often eat plants you would never expect them to. Squirrels can climb your trees and birds can fly just about anywhere, so without covering your entire garden in a net there is no way to protect everything. Designing an ecosystem where animal life is balanced with plant life is the ideal, but that is the work of many humans over many lifetimes. So I just try to be grateful that those who visit my garden are able to appreciate it. We have taken so much from them already, it is the least I can do.
There are also many cases where animals interacting with your plants or landscape is ultimately beneficial. Bunnies may eat the food in my garden, but they also usually leave behind fresh fertilizer that improves the soil. A local chipmunk digs holes in my beds, but these can just be thought of as small water-infiltration basins!
What would it mean for us to come to terms with the knowledge that civilization, our whole mode of development and culture, has been premised and built upon extermination—on a history experienced as "terror without end" (to borrow a phrase from Adorno)? To dwell on such a thought would be to throw into almost unbearable relief the distance between our narratives of inherent human dignity and grace and moral superiority, on the one hand, and the most elemental facts of our actual social existence, on the other.
We congratulate ourselves for our social progress—for democratic governance and state-protected civil and human rights (however notional or incompletely defended)—yet continue to enslave and kill millions of sensitive creatures who in many biological, hence emotional and cognitive particulars resemble us. To truly meditate on such a contradiction is to comprehend our self-understanding to be not merely flawed, but comically delusional.
In the nineteenth century, the animal welfare advocate Edward Maitland warned that our destruction of other animals lead only to our own "debasement and degradation of character" as a species. "For the principles of Humanity cannot be renounced with impunity; but their renunciation, if persisted in, involves inevitably the forfeiture of humanity itself. And to cease through such forfeiture man is to become demon." What else indeed can we call a being but demon who routinely enslaves and kills thousands of millions of other gentle beings, imprisons them in laboratories, electrocutes or poisons or radiates or drowns them?
-John Sanbonmatsu
Not every plant is created equal. Historically, humans have subsisted on a wide variety of plants but typically rely on a much smaller number of species for the bulk of their calories. What I'm searching for is a small selection of plant heavyweights from around the world that can serve as the foundation of a food garden and be multiplied to produce at any scale, whether that's just a small backyard or a large food forest that feeds a community.
This is based on a few different criteria: how easy they are to grow and use (even in small spaces); how productive they are; their culinary, nutritional and medicinal qualities; and their ability to grow in tough environments, regenerate soil or contribute to the local ecosystem. Keep in mind this is based on my own experiences in my own unique climate and soil, so your results may vary. That being said, many plants on this list are chosen at least partially because they will tolerate a wide variety of conditions and are easy to grow.
Fruit and nut trees are always the foundation, followed by perennial roots, all of which are low effort and long lived plants packed with energy. Root and seed annuals are another dense source of energy (although usually requiring more maintenence), with vegetables rounding out the list. Self-sowing plants or those whose seed can be dispersed on the spot are always prefered over those that must be direct seeded or transplanted at specific times.
*Can be harvested year-round (unlike tubers) and therefore more valuable. ^Requires standing/running water or fully saturated soil. ~Fully or partially a support species, category may not be accurate.
Create the foundation of a garden with trees, shrubs, herbs, perennials and plants that can propagate themselves or need little maintenance. Then you have a bulletproof skeleton for everything else. Then all the annuals that require more care can be planted into this existing ecosystem. Here they are benefiting from constant soil regeneration and can be grown in any number of niches resulting from nearby perennials. Your radishes and basil are instantly surrounded by a variety of plants creating a balanced insect population. Once you've got this foundation you will never need to fertilize again, the soil will give and give, even when you provide nothing in return beyond the mulch it produces. It will serve you until death, this is the life-yearning-multiplying power of nature. Science has taught us to think of a garden as a closed system that gets nutritionally depleted with every harvest. But life does not subscribe to meaningless concepts like this, it multiplies beyond any explanation. A single plot of ordinary land has a thousand generations of harvests stored within it, even without closing the loop of fertility in the form of humanure. We just need to learn how to tap into this potential with the right foundation.
The following are experimental group plantings I am testing. I find polycultures most useful for root crops as they often require regular or deep soil disturbance and replanting, whereas many other vegetables and herbs can often easily grow alongside each other in a much more complex and resilient organisation.
Large Seeds: Amaranth + Bean + Silverweed
Moderate Soil / Part Shade To Sun
A classic formula with some new faces. The three sisters uses squash as a ground cover. I would rather grow the squash elsewhere and instead hold fertility in the soil with a perennial ground cover like silverweed. Transplant the amaranth and direct seed the beans right next to it. Harvest beans as needed. Harvest amaranth and silverweed at the end of the growing season.
Large Roots: Achira + Taro + Minari
Moist & Rich Soil / Part Shade To Sun
This is a prime time polyculture with two productive root crops. I use it in the best spot in the garden that stays moist year round and gets lots of sun. Produces a lot of mulch that can be applied back to the same spot once harvested. Harvest minari as needed during the growing season. Harvest achira and taro when they've died back.
Small Roots: Potato + Leek + Bunching Onion
Moderate & Loose Soil / Part Shade To Sun
Designed for low-till cultivation in which the potatoes wait in the ground until the end of the growing season. Then the entire bed is harvested and reset for the following year. Save a seed potato from each plant and replant immediately after harvesting to remain dormant in the soil until spring. Harvest and divide leeks as needed.
Competitive Roots: Sunchoke + Chinese Yam + Perilla
Moderate & Loose Soil / Part Shade To Sun
I like growing these together because they are all strong growers and can be difficult to remove once established. I plant them in a spot that is easy to manage where they can't escape. Sunchoke is the heavy-yielding star of the show and the trellis for the chinese yam. Perilla will appreciate the yearly soil disturbance and fill in space. Harvest yam and perilla leaves as needed. Harvest roots of sunchoke and yam at the end of the growing season.
Water Roots: Cattail + Groundnut + Wapato + Lotus
Saturated Soil / Part Shade To Sun
Water-loving natives to be planted in and around a pond or fully saturated soil. These plants often naturally grow alongside each other and each is a productive root crop that will spread like wild. If there is plentiful water, this polyculture is essential. Harvest groundnut, cattail and lotus as needed. Harvest wapato at the end of the growing season.
Competetive Fruit: Elderberry + Gua Lou + Raspberry/Blackberry + Wild Strawberry
Moderate Soil / Shade To Sun
Some of the most vigorous fruits to grow in the backyard. Elderberry grows tall and strong, spreading by suckers. It serves as the trellis for gua lou which grows quickly and clambers around. Raspberry fills in the space around it and strawberry covers ground quickly to hold in moisture. What is so wonderful about this selection is that all these plants are adapted to growing in both sun and shade. Harvest fruits of all four as they ripen.
Succulents: Prickly Pear + Dolnamul
Poor Or Well Draining Soil / Part Shade To Sun
A basic combination, both succulents that thrive with little fertility or water. The dolanmul is a great groundcover because it stays low and allows the prickly pear to grow and feel the sun without much competition. Tarvest both as needed.
Annual Regeneratives: Sunflower + Tobacco + Buckwheat + Borage + Barley + Clover
Any Soil / Part Shade To Sun
This mix can be used alone or dispersed to grow alongside previously established plantings. Sunflower and borage are soil regeneration superstars that will feed pollinators. Barley grows in the toughest of conditions and clover covers ground while fixing nitrogen. Harvest borage leaves and flowers as needed. Harvest sunflower and barley seeds at the end of the growing season.
Perennial Regeneratives: Empress Tree + Alpine Dock + Comfrey
Any Soil / Shade To Sun
These are some of my favorite soil builders. Empress tree makes huge, nitrogen-rich leaves and can be cut back at the end of each growing season to prevent it from becoming a tree (it will regrow from roots and makes bigger leaves this way). Alpine dock and comfrey both have extensive root systems and strong, dense foliage.
These polycultures are not self-sustaining and should be regularly fed/mulched. Beans, peas or clover can be incorporated for nitrogen. Plants that draw pollinators may also be helpful to control pests. Think of these polycultures as building blocks that interact with and depend on the diversity of the rest of the garden.
Man, do not pride yourself on your superiority to the animals, for they are without sin, while you, with all your greatness, you defile the earth wherever you appear and leave an ignoble trail behind you -- and that is true, alas, for almost every one of us!
-Fyodor Dostoyevsky
Annual/Perennial: Designations for Z7a, may differ in other climates. Since I only grow plants in one location I usually cannot indicate how hardy they are, only if they survive winters where I am. Hardiness zones also do not take into account many important factors, notably how long low temperatures occur for and how wet the soil is over winter. West coast Z7 and east coast Z7 are two very different climates. For this reason many plants that are supposedly hardy to Z7 may not survive the wet and cold winters of Maryland. Microclimates can also be the reason one plant survives winter while another in the same neighborhood does not.
I typically try to use the most common English name for the plant, although the Latin name is always the most accurate. I also sometimes include the name of the plant in the most relevant language to help with personal research.
Edible: Useful edible parts. Not comprehensive, not a reference, only a starting point. Often there will be more edible portions than indicated, but I may not mention them for any number of reasons. Do not eat anything you are not 100% familiar with. Always be certain of your identification and the parts edible. Consult multiple sources, see resources at the end of page.
I do not always indicate whether a plant can be eaten raw or must be cooked. Some plants cannot be eaten raw but can be cooked or prepared in some other way, such as drying or fermenting. Processes like fermenting will sometimes render a food safe to eat in the same way that cooking would. But it is not always this simple. Many plants must be prepared in a specific way in order to make them safe to eat. Petasites Japonicus, for example, should always be both blanched and peeled prior to eating. Or consider Rheum Acuminatum, a little-known species of rhubarb. It is usually dried and pickled before being eaten. Does this mean it cannot just be cooked like other species of rhubarb? It may be totally harmless, or maybe the fermenting accomplishes something that cooking does not, something we are not aware of. Tradition is wise, but it rarely explains itself. And even if it was harmful, the effects may not be obvious. Some plants can quietly build up toxins in your body for decades before manifesting themselves as symptoms of an illness. So just because a plant can be eaten without any noticeable adverse effects does not mean that it is safe to eat regularly over a longer period of time. This is why it is important to understand the history of how foods are prepared and eaten. After that, if you want to experiment then the risk is yours to take. But as far as this reference goes, I try to stay conservative.
Root: Plants that store energy in roots or tubers usually draw on this energy to produce flowering shoots. Perennial roots are therefore usually harvested after the plant has flowered and been given ample time to store more energy in the roots. This is often at the very beggining or end of the growing season. Annual or biennial roots are harvested before flowering as in this case it signifies the end of the plant's life. To maximize harvests we can dig up these roots after it's done most of its growing but before it has a chance to start producing a flowering shoot. After flowering occurs the root will be tough and inedible. However, whether annual or perennial the best practices for harvesting will depend on the specific plant and growing conditions.
Shoot: Shoot refers only to the young growth of the plant when it first emerges from the ground; in other words, the entire aerial portion of the young plant, often in spring. How large the young plant is when harvested depends on the specific plant. This is not the same as terminal or tender new growth (see below). If the plant forms a basal rosette then the shoot usually refers only to the young leaves and petioles. If it does not then it also refers to the young, immature stem and in this case the terminal growth is more likely to be edible as well but just because a shoot is edible does not mean that any part of the mature plants is edible. If a plant contains harmful or toxic substances, these may be in low enough quantities when the plant is young but not when it matures. If the mature leaves of a plant are edible then usually so is the shoot, but depending on the plant I may not write this if it is not normally eaten that way (as in the case with many herbs). Shoots are valued for their sweet flavor and tender texture, especially when the mature plant may be bitter or tough. They are therefore often the preferred harvest of a plant.
Stem, Leaf & Petiole: If the leaf is edible then usually so is the terminal or tender new growth, harvested with some of the new stem. In fact, when the leaves are small, young or tightly bunched this can often be the best time to harvest. I only indicate separately that the stem is edible when it constitutes a meaningful portion of the edible harvest or when it can be eaten even when relatively mature. For example, amaranth or nettle are often eaten with some of the tender stem, but I only write the leaf is edible because the stem is relatively insignificant to the harvest. If the leaf is edible then so is the petiole unless a distinction has been made in the individual listing. Some references refer to petioles as leaf stalk but I avoid this to prevent confusion.
Inflorescence + Flower: Flowering shoots are a separate identification and are indicated as inflorescence. These are eaten when still young, clustered, and tender. If the inflorescence is edible then often so are the flower buds and flowers, although this may not always be practical or palatable. There are roughly three stages for harvest: entire young inflorescence while still tender, sometimes with some of the tender stem attached; the individual, unopened flower buds picked off once the flowering stem becomes tougher; the individual blooming flowers when fully or partially open. Some plants are only eaten during one stage, while some can be eaten during all three. Once a plant begins to form a flowering shoot, the leaves usually become more bitter and tough as energy is being drawn away to support the flowers. Plants with leaves that do not become bitter during flowering are often valued for this trait.
Seed: I will occasionally indicate the seed is edible if it is useful in some way. Just because a flower is edible does not mean the seed is, and vice versa.
Some of the plants are marked as calorie crops. This is to indicate they are efficient producers of calories given one growing season and a limited amount of space. This is almost entirely root and seed crops. It does not include many other useful and potential staple crops that take longer to grow or are not as efficient.
The best way to know how to eat a plant is to do research, grow it and become familiar with it. Even with references, the actual details of how it's harvested and eaten can vary between plants. And keep in mind that many online references are just summarizing (often poorly or incorrectly) physical reference books that provide more detail. If a plant is uncommon, then especially thorough research is required. Typically we are looking to answer a few basic questions. Is there an extensive history of humans eating this part of the plant? If so, how is it prepared and in what quantity is it eaten? Are there any indications that this plant may contain harmful or toxic substances? The more information you have, the better.
Always remember the golden rule: if it's not regularly eaten, don't eat it regularly.
Just because one species in a genus is edible does not mean that other species are. And just because one part of the plant is edible does not mean that others parts are. These kinds of assumptions will put you in the hospital or in the ground. There are even cases (as with some members of the Calystegia genus) where one variety of a species is edible but another variety within the very same species is not. Therefore we must be thoughtful about what exactly we are eating and recognize that academic taxonomy has its limits. Even if an online resource says something is edible (including this one), you must do your own research!
Propagation: Useful methods of propagation. Usually seed, stem cutting, or rhizome/tuber/root division. Seeds that prefer cold stratification or sunlight to germinate are often noted as such. I sometimes try to get bare roots or potted plants if a seed is difficult to germinate. Annuals or biennials that I have had success naturalizing in the garden are marked as self-sowing. This marker is not applied to any perennials. Plants marked as spreading aggressively are best planted in containers or areas surrounded by lawn/concrete unless you want to spend years pulling them up (all from personal experience).
Conditions: Rough guidelines for minimum sun requirements: Sun (≈80-100%) → Part Shade (≈60-80%) → Shade (≈30-60%) → Deep shade (≈0-30%). Estimating sun is difficult, but I do my best to give rough guidelines. Most of the time, if a plant prefers shade, it will also prefer rich and moist soil. And keep in mind that just because a plants prefers sun doesn't mean it can handle the heat summer usually brings. This is often true for plants that grow naturally in cooler climates, such as in high altitudes or in coastal areas. Some plants have markers that indicate they grow easily, these are great plants to start with.
Wildlife: Impact of wildlife and insects on plant. We have lots of deer as well as chipmunks, rabbits and birds that live nearby. I try to grow enough food for everyone, but I can't let them eat everything! I have some fenced areas for sensitive plants I don't want being bothered. I try to be as hands-off as possible and rarely remove insects from plants or interfere with their growth.
Notes: Everything else. Observations about growth habits, useful varieties, hardiness, harvesting, interactions with other plants and more. Plants with photos were grown in Maryland, roughly zone 7a. You may notice some of the plants in my photos don't look perfectly healthy - this is okay. If it is a perennial, as long as it has a healthy root system it will grow just fine after being planted and given a few seasons to adjust.
Soil & Climate: The conditions are fairly wet year round, although in the summer there are stretches where the soil dries out. Soil is good overall, some spots with heavy clay and some very sandy. Normally the only time I water plants is while they are getting established. Most non-perennial plants survive (or die) exclusively on rain water, unless they are lucky enough to be near a perennial I'm watering while it gets established.
Edible: Leaf, flower.
Propagation: Division, seed.
Conditions: Shade to sun. May grow well in meadows.
Wildlife: Deer resistant. POLLINATOR FRIENDLY
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Many edible and medicinal species within this genus, generally known as hyssops. Beautiful flowers appreciated by pollinators, especially some form of moth in my garden. Easily grown and not picky about soil or sun. I like this particular species for its wonderful aroma, it makes a delicious tea and garnish alike. Unfortunately this species does not overwinter well and instead often grows more like an annual in my climate. I am looking into species or varieties that will be true perennials in this climate. A. foeniculum is common as well.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: A. rugosa.
Edible: Stem, leaf, seed.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant. POLLINATOR FRIENDLY
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Fragrant herb famous for pickling but with a variety of other uses. Often considered self-seeding but in my experience it only does this to a limited extent. I wish it would become weedy but it never does. Bolts easily, especially in my beds with no irrigation. Despite all this it does have some wonderful qualities in the garden, aside from the amazing flavor. It has such a slim profile that it can grow in between other plants without creating any shade. This makes it an excellent choice for easily increasing diversity in a garden bed. For a perennial alternative, see fennel.
Photos: A. graveolens.
Edible: Rhizome.
Propagation: Division, seed. Cold stratify. May be difficult from seed.
Conditions: Deep shade to shade. Woodland. Shelter from heat.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: A beautiful woodland herb used by native Americans. Rhizomes are used as a garnish in limited quantities. There are reports of toxicity, so never eat the leaves and always eat in moderation. Despite the limited use it makes a gorgeous ground cover for shade. Requires shelter from direct sun and heat, especially while getting established the first year. After this it is considerably more tolerant. An understory plant that can grow alongside ramps. Slow to spread. A. europaeum is also used the same way.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: A. canadense.
Edible: Leaf, flower.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: Many edible plants in different genera are referred to as a kind of rocket or cress. Most are weedy and eaten as a garnish in limited quantity due to the hotness of the leaves. It grew alright the first year but seems to have disappeared since then. A perennial alternative to arugula.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Leaf, flower.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: I have limited experience with this plant but it has never impressed me. Leaves have limited use due to their hotness and bolts very easily. Seed production was also lacking for the variety I grew.
Photos: E. vesicaria.
Edible: Stem, leaf, seed.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. DROUGHT TOLERANT
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: A resilient herb that is well-suited for hot and dry climates but grows just fine in wetter soil and cooler weather. The standard variety is used primarily as an herb, but there are bulbing varieties used as a vegetables. These will likely need more water to properly develop. The bulbing varieties, to the best of my knowledge, will not live as perennials the same way the standard variety does. But if there is a consistently perennial bulbing variety that would be very promising. I have a bronze variety which is often described as an ornamental but tastes wonderful as well. Becomes quite big and bushy when mature. Very ornamental.
Photos: F. vulgare.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed, stem.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: I tend to think of this herb as similar to rosemary - both have compact growth habit, both prefer sun and well-draining soil, both have similar leaves. But lavender is much easier to grow in my experience. It doesn't need as much sun, will tolerate wetter soils and is hardier. Plus is it just an absolutely gorgeous plant with an amazing aroma. Limited culinary use but can also be infused into soaps or perfumes. I use this for tea. A gardener at a botanic garden once explained that many varieties of lavender are hard to propagate - it's just that french lavender and the varieties in the trade are those that are easy to propagate by stem rooting. L. latifolia is used in the same way.
Photos: Lavandula spp.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed, stem.
Conditions: Shade to sun. May grow well in meadows. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer resistant. POLLINATOR FRIENDLY
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Once known as a medicinal panacea, now often relegated to weed status. Very easily grown and forms large clumps quickly. Fantastic aroma and wonderful as a tea. I cut this back and mulch with it fairly often.
Photos: M. officinalis.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Division, stem, seed. SPREADS AGGRESSIVELY
Conditions: Shade to sun. May grow well in meadows. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer resistant. POLLINATOR FRIENDLY
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Most herbs in the mint family get a bad reputation because of this plant. But in my experience only those in this genus pose any concern, just because of how quickly they spread by rhizome and how hard they can be to get rid of. For species that do not play well with others, I prefer planting them in shade or in spots with tough soil (even compacted lawn). This way they don't get in the way and their growth is slowed down a bit. Plus they are not taking space away from plants that need better conditions. M. requienii, corsican mint, is a notable species within this genus as well. Not only edible but forms a beautiful, diminutive groundcover. Grows slowly at first and is very small so it needs to be managed while getting established. Has been difficult to cultivate.
Photos: M. spicata.
Edible: Leaf, flower.
Propagation: Seed, stem.
Conditions: Shade to sun. May grow well in meadows. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer resistant. POLLINATOR FRIENDLY
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Very easily grown like others in the mint family.. Others like M. citriodora. Beautiful flowers that pollinators enjoy. I really enjoy this plant - a beneficial native, grows easily and quickly, not selective about soil or sun, spread it all around the garden! A fundamental native herb.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: M. fisulosa.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed, stem.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. Prefers warm soil to germinate.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: This species is the standard and quite sweet. I personally prefer O. tenuiflorum, sacred basil. One whiff of this plant and you are transported to another dimension, no wonder it is sacred! Some others. All prefer heat and sun, only thriving once the weather starts to warm up in the summer. When transplanted they do very well but I have never found any seedlings coming up from dispersed seed.
Photos: Ocimum spp.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed, stem. GROUNDCOVER
Conditions: Shade to sun. DROUGHT TOLERANT
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: One of my favorite herbs to have in the garden. Oddly enough most specimens haven't done super well. They survive but do not grow with much vigor, maybe my backyard is a bit too shady and wet for them. Versatile in the kitchen and easily grown. Great for filling in space between bigger perennials. The Greek variety is much better for culinary use and is the one to get if you want the classic flavor.
Photos: O. vulgare.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed. SELF-SOWS
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: I absolutely love having parsley in the garden. It is one of the easiest non-perennial herbs I grow. Tastes wonderful and can be eaten in quantity like a vegetable. Tolerant of dry soil and cold hardy. Grows in between and around other crops well because it has such long petioles. No problems with insects or wildlife. The curled varieties taste much better in my experience. Good potential for naturalizing in my climate.
Suggested Varieties: 'Hungarian Landrace' from Wild Garden Seed.
Photos: P. crispum.
Edible: Leaf, flower.
Propagation: Division, seed, stem.
Conditions: Shade to sun. May grow well in meadows. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer resistant. POLLINATOR FRIENDLY
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: One of my favorite herbs although rarely gets the attention it deserves! Think of this genus as the mintiest form of mint there is. Super refreshing and a wonderful breath freshener. After tasting this any other mint will just taste mild in comparison. Because of its potency it makes a great tea fresh off the plant. Other mints are better dried in order to concentrate the flavor, but this does not need that at all. The flowers can also be used fresh for a beautiful and strong tea. It's also easy to control and not very aggressive. Like bee balm, this is a native herb I like to have all around the garden. P virginianum is frequent as well.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: P. incanum. ↴
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Stem, seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. DROUGHT TOLERANT
Wildlife: Deer resistant. Except for clary sage.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: I love rosemary both for its taste and compact growth habit. I find it quite picky however, needing good sun and well-draining soil. In my climate rosemary seems to be just barely hardy enough - plants may lose all their leaves over winter and possibly be severely damaged from the cold. They can still come back to life come spring but you'll have better luck with the plant if it is in a sheltered spot that still gets plenty of sun. There is also a creeping variety. Now in the same genus as all the sages but definitely an outlier from them.
Common garden sage, S. officinalis, is a standard and suitably cold hardy in my region. I've tried a few other sages but none have that classic sage taste. Like rosemary it needs full sun and dry or well-draining soil. Clary sage, S. sclarea, is a biennial with big leaves and a big, beautiful inflorescence. The flowers are divine. Wild sage, S. verbanica, forms a small rosette and is one of the least palatable species. It is a nice groundcover with beautiful flowers though.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: S. officinalis. S. sclarea. S. rosmarinus. S. verbanica.
Edible: Root, leaf, seed.
Propagation: Seed. SELF-SOWS
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: An uncommon herb seldom found in cultivation. Germination is so good that this plant can become weedy. Plants will overwinter easily, usually with all their leaves still green, and go on to produce small but dense mounds of foliage. They are vigorous growers that cover the surrounding soil well and suppress germinating seeds or weeds. These qualities may be useful in some areas but an annoyance in others. The plant in flower is also something to behold, growing over five feet high with dozens of delicate stems and even more delicate flowers. I would probably rather have this in an area I am rehabilitating or a larger/wilder bed just because of the way it flowers. Leaves are a condiment and the root can be cooked as a vegetable.
Photos: S. amomum.
Edible: Leaf.
Propagation: Seed, stem. GROUNDCOVER
Conditions: Part shade to sun. DROUGHT TOLERANT
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Thyme is another wonderful and versatile herb, this species forms a matting groundcover but many others have a growth habit similar to oregano. I find the groundcover species like this one a bit harder to incorporate into the garden as they are small and easily overtaken. So it's important to find the right spot for them where competition will be lowered or easily managed. Edges or nooks in between rocks work well to utilize their creeping characteristic. Or perhaps next to a wall it can hang off of. Full sun and well-draining soil but adaptable. Many references indicate the creeping varieties are not eaten, but this is absolutely false. They taste amazing! T. vulgaris is the standard for culinary use. Many others.
Photos: T. serpyllum.
Edible: Shoot, stem, leaf, seed.
Propagation: Seed. Cold stratify. Prefers sunlight to germinate. May grow well in meadows.
Conditions: Shade to sun. May grow well in meadows.
Wildlife: Deer resistant. POLLINATOR FRIENDLY
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: A biennial but can be a short lived perennial, although I imagine this varies based on the species. Many species like this one have edible shoots and leaves that can be cooked as a vegetable. I think it prefers well drained soil as consistently wet soil seems to make it rot. A. atropurpurea and A. lucida also have edible leaves. A. keiskei or ashitaba is perhaps the most prized species in the genus, it can be eaten the same way but exudes a yellow sap from the stems and is a longevity medicinal. There is supposedly a variety 'Mikura' that is more palatable. An important wild food from Japan. Possibly hardy in my area but a small one I had growing died over winter. Will hopefully continue experimenting with it if I can get these darn seeds to germinate! A. gigas and A. acutiloba are also eaten for their leaves, the latter being used for its medicinal root as well.
A. japonica/kiusiana is a lesser known species, Plants For Human Consumption and this paper only mention the seeds as being eaten. I have seen some casual references to it being foraged and eaten, and Chinese Materia Medica indicates a part of it is eaten as a vegetable. Here is the full entry:
This is given in the Pentsao under the article on Rhus semialata and is said to come from a women's kingdom located to the east of the country of Fulin, is fragrant, saline, and is eaten as a vegetable. Its leaves are said to resemble those of Seseli libanotis.
It is sometimes eaten by locals, both the cooked root and leaves, but to what extent is unclear. Useful Plants Of Japan, Described And Illustrated writes that this species is actually "very poisonous". This is mentioned under the entry for ashitaba, warning foragers not to mistake the two. This seems to be a reputable source and is quite clear on the matter. Eating Wild Japan writes that it is not poisonous but not typically eaten. A Japanese reference book I have also says it is not eaten. Another says only the roots are of any value.
Of course, there is no obvious resolution. All or some of the plant may have a compound that makes it unsafe for regular consumption. Certain methods of preparation may make it safer for eating (like fuki or ferns). It is also possible that some forms are safer than others, as there are at least a few different varieties. Ultimately, I would avoid it unless you are already very familiar with it. And I certainly would not make it a regular part of my diet.
Many others in this genus with different edible or medicinal properties.
Photos: Angelica spp.
Edible: Shoot, stem, leaf.
Propagation: Division, seed. Cold stratify.
Conditions: Shade to part shade.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: One of the famous mountain vegetables of Japan! An excellent perennial vegetable for its productivity and biomass generation. Most English references indicate the shoot is eaten, preferably blanched/covered. This is the most highly valued harvest, but a small one for a plant so big. In fact, the largest crop from this plant is the tender new growth, the young stems and leaves. These are available for a much longer portion of the year and can be produced in quantity on older specimens. Will tolerate shade but seems to prefer full sun. Dies back every winter, leaving behind dead stems wonderful for mulch.
For some reason the only variety available from most nurseries here in the west is 'Sun King', which has a yellower tint to it but can be eaten the same way. If you are looking for a variety closer to the .wild form, you may have to grow it from seed. Left outside in a pot with soil over winter, seeds of this species germinate well. A. racemosa has different edible properties and is rarely cultivated for this purpose.
Photos: A. cordata.
Edible: Root, shoot.
Propagation: Division.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: Hot root used as condiment and shoots/young leaves eaten as vegetable. Flowers but almost never produces seed. Expands into large patches, large leaves. Preference for full sun. Thick roots, large leaves, makes me think about soil regeneration.
Photos: A. rusticana.
Edible: Shoot, leaf.
Propagation: Seed, stem, division. SPREADS AGGRESSIVELY
Conditions: Shade to sun. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer resistant.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: I have become quite infatuated with this plant. Although likely to be considered a weed in most gardens, this particular species is a traditional Korean vegetable. The shoots can be eaten like any other vegetable, but it is most famous as a flavoring ingredient in rice cakes and occasionally in soup.
The plant grows very easily in most conditions and forms clump about 5 feet high. And what I really love about this plant is that the thick stems make for a wonderful mulch. In my mind this is a great chop and drop plant considering how quickly it grows. I have a few around the garden and use them this way regularly. This plant spreads very quickly once established (species in this genus are often considered invasive) so cut it back often and consider keeping it in a separate space where it can be easily managed.
Some plants in this genus are allelopathic and are said to inhibit the growth of nearby plants. I have not personally observed this with any of the species I grow but it may still be useful to keep in mind. A. vulgaris, common mugwort, is edible in the same way along with some others. Said to be a lucid dreaming aid as well.
🌿 Native species are present in this genus.
Photos: Artemisia spp.
Edible: Shoot, leaf, inflorescence, seed pod.
Propagation: Division, seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun. EASY & VIGOROUS
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: One of the most popular native, wild edibles and a staple for pollinators. Shoots are the most common harvest but young leaves or growing tips are also edible. Expands into large patches but mostly well-behaved. This would be on my list for most essential native edibles. Excellent potential for growing some vines on a patch of this, throw in a ground cover and you've got a real nice polyculture.
Photos: A. syriaca.
Edible: Shoot.
Propagation: Division, seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: A classic perennial vegetable of home gardens. I have not found them to be too picky about soil but they do seem to need mostly sun. Grown from seed they will take a few years before the shoots are big enough to harvest. Young plants are easily overtaken when surrounded by competition. A. schoberioides is edible in the same way, but with smaller shoots.
Photos: A. officinalis.
Edible: Root, shoot, flower.
Propagation: Division, seed.
Conditions: Shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive?
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: A historic Roman vegetable, grown primarily for its roots and shoots but may be valued for the flowers as well. Needs dry soil and full sun in my experience, they don't survive very long in my garden. Not sure if it's the climate or something else. Leaves stay up over winter. Seed may prefer cold stratification but some will germinate without this. Excellent potential as a perennial root crop.
Photos: A. lutea.
Edible: Shoot, leaf.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive, preferred
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: One of many edible asters and a traditional Korean vegetable. Prefers full sun but will do fine in part shade. Young leaves or tender new growth is eaten. A good choice for a wild leafy green to incorporate into the food forest. A. tataricus has a medicinal root and is very occasionally eaten for its shoot in spring, although the plant quickly becomes very tough. Pollinators love it though.
Photos: A. scaber. A. tataricus.
Edible: Leaf, inflorescence.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive.
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: A perennial beet relative grown for its edible leaves. The inflorescence is also edible when young and tender. Root is said to be edible but not normally eaten. A resilient plant but does not do well in shade. When in sun the plant does very well with a deep taproot after just a few months. Low growing so ensure it is not being shaded out by other plants. The seeds I grew out had noticeable differences, mostly in leaf shape and size, so this vegetable should offer a good opportunity for selection and breeding. Died out from my garden.
Photos: B. vulgaris maritama.
Edible: Leaf, flower.
Propagation: Seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer sensitive?
Status: None. ⚠️
Notes: I think this plant has excellent potential as an edible soil regenerator that can self-sow. Plant it once and then let it work the soil for you for years to come! Excellent for pollinators as well.
🦕 This plant is featured in a polyculture.
Photos: Coming soon.
Edible: Leaf, inflorescence.
Propagation: Stem, seed.
Conditions: Part shade to sun.
Wildlife: Deer resistant. Eaten in winter. Bunny sensitive. Leaves fed to many animals, may be mildly toxic.
Status: Established. ✅
Notes: B. oleracea consists of many different plants including broccoli, cabbage, kale and cauliflower - all of which are annuals and biennials. Of these I tend to focus on kale because this particular variety of kale is known to have some non-flowering or short lived perennial forms. Most kale will set seed after their first winter, but some forms will either set seed after 2-3 years of growth or never/rarely set seed at all. Those that don't set seed are usually propagated by stem cutting. Stem cuttings can be placed in moist soil to root and clone the original plant. Out of many plants grown only one has proven to be hardy enough and lived more than 2 years. But the wonderful thing about this plant is that once you find a good form like this, it's only a matter of taking some cuttings and planting it all around the garden.
I am particularly interested in the forms that can live for a few years before setting seed. This not only ensures genetic diversity but also opens up the possibility of harvesting the inflorescence and perhaps breeding some form of a short-lived perennial kale/broccoli vegetable. I also wonder about the potential for a polycarpic perennial kale (flowering more than once). To the best of my knowledge this does not yet exist and those that will live longer when the flowerheads are cut off do not count.
Some plants are cold hardy but many are not. Like others in this genus it is very susceptible to insects. I also have trouble with mildew when it grows in shadier or wetter spots.
Suggested Varieties: 'Homesteader's Kaleidoscopic Perennial Kale Grex' from Experimental Farm Network.
Photos: B. oleracea. ↴